経済
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政治的不確実性の重しがあるにもかかわらず、英国経済は比較的堅調に推移している。
しかし、英国が実際にE.U.を離脱する以前から、ブレグジットは高まった不確実性、企業設備投資の深刻な弱さ、低迷する生産性を通じて英国経済に持続的な影響を残している。
その結果、トレンド成長が低下し、構造的に弱い為替レートと相対的に高い国内インフレを抱える経済となっている。
ブレグジットは10月31日を超えて先送りされるだろう。合意なき離脱(ノー・ディール)は、ボリス・ジョンソンの手を強化する早期選挙が起きない限り、過度に強調されたリスクである。それは起こりそうにない。
英ポンドと英国債(ギルト)に対する投資見通しは二極的である:「円滑な」ブレグジットはポンドにとって強気、ギルトにとって弱気であり、一方で合意なき離脱はポンドとギルト利回りの双方をさらに低下させるだろう。
特集
2016年に英国が欧州連合(E.U.)からの離脱を決めて以来、経済と金融資産の見通しは、離脱が秩序ある形で行われるか否かという二者択一の帰着に結びついている。これは甚大な不確実性の源であり、イングランド銀行(BoE)を中央銀行がこれまで直面した中で最も扱いにくい立場の一つに置いている。
今週のレポートでは、いくつかのハイレベルな疑問に答えようとする。まず、世界的な製造業の景気後退を考慮すると、英経済の減速は平凡なものだったのか。それとも、政治的不確実性の高まりを受けて不当に長引いているのか。後者であるなら、もし「合意なき離脱」が避けられた場合、反発の見込みはどうか。最後に、遅延した投資のためにすでに取り返しのつかないダメージが経済に生じており、E.U.との関係結果にかかわらず長期的な影響を残しているのか、である。
雇用ブーム
英国は現在、第二次世界大戦以来の最良の雇用回復を経験している。過去10年間で420万人の新規雇用が創出され、就業人口比率はほぼ50年ぶりの高水準に達している。注目すべきは、この回復は労働市場の状況が非常に堅調な米国の回復よりもさらに印象的に見える点だ。例えば米国の就業率は60.9%で、わずかに英国を下回るが、危機前のピークから依然としてほぼ4ポイント低い(チャート 1)。ユーロ圏と比べると、英国の労働市場のアウトパフォーマンスは非常に明白である。
この回復にもかかわらず、賃金の上昇はボーア戦争以来で最も鈍い。
雇用の質も優れており、フルタイム雇用の創出はパートタイムを上回り、女性の就業率も急増している。雇用の恩恵は地域や産業に広く行き渡っている。確かに製造業はやや変動が見られるが、イースト・ミッドランド地域を除き、失業率は英国全体で引き続き低下している(チャート 2)。
チャート 1
雇用ブーム
雇用ブーム
雇用ブーム
チャート 2
回復は広範囲に及ぶ
回復は幅広く進んでいる
回復は幅広く進んでいる
この回復にもかかわらず、賃金の上昇はボーア戦争以来で最も鈍い。7月の演説で、イングランド銀行(BoE)のチーフエコノミスト、アンディ・ホールデンは、賃金の失われた10年が主要な英国地域全体にわたる均等な災害であったと正しく指摘した。1950年代から大不況(グレート・リセッション)までの間、英国の実質賃金は年率約2%で成長していた。グレート・リセッション以降、実質賃金は年率-0.4%で停滞している(チャート 3)。1
チャート 3
賃金は最近まで停滞
賃金は最近まで停滞していた
賃金は最近まで停滞していた
これにはいくつかの理由がある。第一に、個人事業主、ゼロアワー契約、派遣労働の伸びが強いことだ。したがって、危機後の期間にフルタイムの割合は上昇しているものの、危機前の高水準には程遠いままである。これは労働市場の流動性を高め、事業遂行コストを下げている。個人事業主やゼロアワー契約労働者の報酬は正規雇用者よりも大幅に低い。明るい点は、この現象が英国特有ではなく、特に欧州で労働市場の硬直性が構造改革によって解きほぐされている中で世界的に起きていることである。
今後の鍵となる問いは、賃金の新たな上昇が持続するかどうかである。循環的な時間軸では、雇用の好調なトレンドが続くなら、英国はかなり強い賃金圧力を経験し始める可能性があると我々は考えている。これには四つの基本的な理由がある:
求人は求職者数を上回り続けている。指標によるが、求人は応募者より20%〜40%多い(チャート 4)。この行き詰まりは、(就業率が世俗的高水準にあるため)より高い就業率やより低い失業率で容易に解消されるものではない。
BoEは英国のNAIRUを4.4%と推定しており、現在の失業率は構造的水準を下回っている。企業調査は依然として、熟練労働の不足が企業が直面する主要な問題の一つであることを示唆している。
英国のフィリップス曲線はここ数年フラット化してきたが、最近賃金成長は上向きに転じ始めている。他国と同様に、英国のフィリップス曲線は折れ線状で、失業ギャップが縮小するにつれて賃金成長の凸性が増す。
職から職への移動率、いわゆるジョブ・トゥ・ジョブ・フローの循環速度が上昇している。これは歴史的に賃金成長にとってプラスである(チャート 5)。これは2012年以降加速している退職率(クイッツ率)にも反映されている。
チャート 4
賃金圧力は高まるはず
賃金上昇圧力は強まる見込みだ
賃金上昇圧力は強まる見込みだ
チャート 5
英国の雇用循環速度は上昇
英国の雇用増加ペースが加速
英国の雇用増加ペースが加速
現時点では、タイトな労働市場から賃金上昇への伝達メカニズムは政治的不確実性によって阻害されており、これは長期的な雇用計画に短期的な影を落とし続けるだろう。例えば、英国が金融センターであるという議論にもかかわらず、銀行・保険業の雇用の減少は根強く続いている(チャート 6)。英国は特に外国為替市場で多くの金融業務を引き付け続けているが、ブレグジット国民投票が行われた2016年には取引量に明確な打撃があった(チャート 7)。一方で製造業は、景況感を再燃させて外国直接投資を呼び戻すまでに時間を要するだろう。
チャート 6
製造業と金融業の雇用における離脱
製造業および金融業の雇用における離職
製造業および金融業の雇用における離職
チャート 7
英国は重要な金融センターである
英国:循環的な減速か、それとも構造的な停滞か?
英国:循環的な減速か、それとも構造的な停滞か?
とはいえ、英国経済は主としてサービスによって牽引されているため、賃金には依然として上方向の圧力がかかることになる。サービス部門の賃金成長は堅調であり、製造業の不況が深刻化して他の部門に波及しない限り、賃金の下への抵抗力は限られており、上向きの方が自然な道筋である。
結論:政治的不確実性の重しがあるにもかかわらず、英国経済は比較的堅調に推移している。
支出の好循環
英国の所得パイは拡大し得るが、自信の欠如が支出を抑制している。チャート 8は英消費者信頼感が米国およびユーロ圏のトレンドから負の乖離を示していることを示す。ブレグジット不確実性の雲が晴れれば、支出が再加速することを示唆するいくつかの相殺要因が働いている。
タイトな労働市場から賃金上昇への伝達メカニズムは政治的不確実性によって阻害されており、これは短期的な影を落とし続ける。
英国の小売売上の大きなドライバーは観光客の到着であり、安いポンドは引き続き来訪者の流入を呼び込む可能性が高い(チャート 9)。
チャート 8
回復にとって鍵となるのは信頼感##br##である
いかなる回復においても、信頼が鍵となる
いかなる回復においても、信頼が鍵となる
チャート 9
安いポンドは外国人買い物客を促す##br##だろう
安いポンドは外国人の買い物を促す
安いポンドは外国人の買い物を促す
英国は多くの世界的な主要ブランドを擁しており、安い通貨から恩恵を受けるだろう。
家計のデレバレッジ(債務削減)プロセスはかなり進んでおり、借入や住宅ローン申請の回復は英住宅価格の下落を緩和している。これは英国の住宅ローン借入コストが利回りとともに急落している事実によって支えられている(チャート 10)。ただし、借入の増加は英国の家計債務対GDPが他の多くの先進経済より高いという事実によって相殺されるだろう。
チャート 10
低金利は住宅を支援するはず
低金利は住宅市場を後押しするはずだ
低金利は住宅市場を後押しするはずだ
チャート 11
コストプッシュ型インフレ
コスト・プッシュ・インフレーション
コスト・プッシュ・インフレーション
インフレ期待は通貨安の影響もあって急上昇している。注目すべきは、ポンドは購買力平価(PPP)ベースのファンダメンタルよりもはるかに大きく下落したことだ。これは輸入インフレを引き起こすだろう(チャート 11)。
結論: 英国経済にとって大きなリスクはスタグフレーションに陥ることだ。BoEの調査は、合意なき離脱の場合の生産に対する損失をGDPの約3%と見積もっているが、これは経済調整の大部分が為替レートを通じて発生する可能性があるため推定値である。合意なき離脱の経済的影響の推定レンジ(表 1)は、おそらく偶然ではないが、20世紀の英国の景気後退のレンジと類似している(チャート 12)。これによりBoEは特に不快な「待機観察」モードに置かれている。例えば、ハードな離脱がポンド下落とインフレ期待の上昇を引き起こした場合、BoEの金融政策委員会がインフレ目標を満たすために利下げを行うのかは明らかでない。
表 1
合意なき離脱の影響に関する幅広い推定##br##
英国:景気の循環的減速か、それとも構造的低迷か?
英国:景気の循環的減速か、それとも構造的低迷か?
チャート 12
過去の英国の景気後退は合意なき影響の指針を提供する##br##
英国:循環的な減速か、それとも構造的な停滞か?
英国:循環的な減速か、それとも構造的な停滞か?
ブレグジット不確実性は既に英国の成長に持続的なダメージを与えている
過去3年間にわたる英国経済成長の主な足かせは、企業信頼感の崩壊とそれに伴う設備投資の縮小であった(チャート 13)。
2016年のブレグジット投票以降、企業の設備投資は過去の類似の英国景気循環の時点に比べて実質的に弱くなっており、BoEによれば累積で26%に達する(チャート 14)。2019年に見られた軟化の一部は、世界経済の成長鈍化や米中貿易戦争に関連する不確実性にも起因するが、英国の資本支出は他の先進経済と比べてはるかに弱い(チャート 15)。
2016年のブレグジット投票以降、企業投資は過去の類似時点に比べて累積で26%弱い。
これは、ブレグジットの「不確実性」だけで英国経済に既に与えられた長期的なダメージを評価する際に重要なポイントである。このダメージを評価する最良の方法は設備投資の視点を通じてであり、その成長は生産性変化と潜在成長に強く相関している(チャート 16)。
チャート 13
悲観的な英国企業は投資を止めた
悲観的な英国企業は投資を停止した
悲観的な英国企業は投資を停止した
チャート 14
歴史と比べた英国の設備投資の大幅なアンダーパフォーマンス ...
英国:景気循環的な減速か、それとも構造的な低迷か?
英国:景気循環的な減速か、それとも構造的な低迷か?
チャート 15
...および##br##世界の同業他社と比べて
...そして世界の同業他社と比較して
...そして世界の同業他社と比較して
チャート 16
ブレグジット不確実性による英国経済への持続的打撃
ブレグジットの不確実性が英国経済に与える持続的な打撃
ブレグジットの不確実性が英国経済に与える持続的な打撃
先月BoEが公表した重要な研究論文(BoE金融政策委員会の現職メンバーであるベン・ブロードベントとシルヴァナ・テネイロ共著)は、ブレグジット不確実性、設備投資、英国の生産性の連関を論じている。2 著者らは、ブレグジット国民投票の結果の経済効果は、英国の貿易可能部門の生産性成長が持続的に低下すると予想されるという反応として分類できると結論づけた。その枠組みでは、「生産性の低下が予想される」という“ニュース”(すなわちブレグジット投票結果)が公表された後、次のような連鎖が発生することになる:
チャート 17
資源のミスアロケーション
資源の誤配分
資源の誤配分
非貿易財の相対価格が貿易財に対して即時かつ恒久的に下落する、すなわち実質為替レートの低下。
相対価格が高いため資源が貿易財部門にシフトし、産出が増加し輸出が上昇する。
しかしブレグジット投票で予告されたように、貿易財部門の生産性成長が低下し、資源は生産性の高い非貿易財部門へ再びシフトする。
金融市場が英国の生産性が相対的に緩やかに推移すると織り込むため、英国の金利は世界に対して低下する。
企業の設備投資の成長は鈍化するが、全体の雇用成長は
耐性を保つ。
これはまさに2016年のブレグジット投票以降の英国経済の進展の仕方である:
BoEのポンドの通商加重インデックスは名目および実質の両面で下落している。
英実質GDPに占める輸出比率は27%から30%に上昇し、実質GDPに占める投資比率は10%から9%に低下した(チャート 17、上段)。
非貿易であるサービスの年次雇用成長は2.1%から2018年末にゼロまで低下したが、その後回復し始めている。貿易財である製造業の雇用成長は、ブレグジット投票の1年以内に0.5%から2.7%へ増加したが、2018年には0%へ再び鈍化し、こちらも上昇し始めている(チャート 17、第3パネル)。
生産性成長は1.9%からゼロへ低下しており、低失業率の時期に安定した労働需要により賃金成長は加速している(チャート 17、下段)。
産業別に見ると、実現した生産性成長の最悪の伸びは金属製品や金融サービスのような貿易可能産業で発生しており、最高の生産性成長は専門サービスや小売のような非貿易産業で見られる(チャート 18)。3
チャート 18
業種別最新の英国生産性成長率
英国:循環的な減速か、それとも構造的な低迷か?
英国:循環的な減速か、それとも構造的な低迷か?
総括すると、BoEの研究論文の分析枠組みによれば、ブレグジット国民投票の結果は、ポンドの暴落によって示されたシグナルとして、英国資源の配分が生産性の高い非貿易産業から生産性の低い貿易産業へ誤って移転されることを本質的に生み出したと解釈できる。もしこれが正しければ、我々は次の現象も観察するはずである:
チャート 19
ブレグジット不確実性のインフレ的結果
ブレグジットの不確実性によるインフレへの影響
ブレグジットの不確実性によるインフレへの影響
サービスや賃金のようなより国内志向の指標でのはるかに高いインフレ率。
賃金の加速と生産性の停滞のギャップの結果としての単位労働費用のより速い上昇。
構造的に高いインフレ期待。
他の先進国に比べて英国で低い実質金利。
為替レートの長期的な弱さ。
これらはすべて英国で現実化している(チャート 19):
サービスCPIのインフレ率は現在2.2%で、全体のCPIインフレの1.7%を上回っている。
単位労働費用の成長は、ブレグジット国民投票前のマイナスから、2016年末以降は2%〜3%の範囲に加速している。
実質10年ギルト利回り(10年のCPIスワップ率でデフレート)は現在-3.1%であり、これに対して米国の10年実質利回りは0%である。
通商加重の英ポンドはブレグジット国民投票後の安値近辺に留まっている。
ブレグジット不確実性が構造的により弱く、よりインフレ的な英国経済をもたらしたことは明らかであり、合意なき離脱が回避されたとしても迅速に逆転する結果ではない可能性がある。これはBoEの将来の金融政策決定とポンドおよび英ギルトへの投資見通しに重要な意味を持つ。
結論: 英国が実際にE.U.を離脱する前であっても、ブレグジットは高まった不確実性、企業設備投資支出の深刻な弱さ、そして低迷する生産性を通じて英国経済に持続的な痕跡を残している。結果として、トレンド成長が低く、構造的に弱い為替レートと相対的に高い国内インフレを抱える経済となっている。
政治的不確実性が支配的
チャート 20
国民は合意なき離脱に反対
英国:循環的な減速か、それとも構造的な低迷か?
英国:循環的な減速か、それとも構造的な低迷か?
このレポートで扱ったような循環的・構造的な英国経済の状況を考慮しても、短期の見通しは依然としてブレグジットの結果に完全に依存している。
ブレグジットの現状は、議会停止に対する政府に対する最高裁の訴訟や、首相ボリス・ジョンソンが議会の命令に従って離脱期限の延長を求めることを拒否したことにより、かつてないほど不確実になっている。疑いの余地がないのは、議会が無秩序な合意なき離脱に反対しているという点だ。最良の世論調査は国民も合意なき離脱に反対していることを示している(チャート 20)。
議員たちは9月にボリス・ジョンソンの交渉戦略を明確に拒否した — 彼らは合意なき離脱を禁止し、早期総選挙の実施にも2回にわたり反対票を投じた(チャート 21)。ジョンソンは連立による議会の過半数を失い、それでも議会が再開するまでは新たな選挙に踏み切れず、動きが取れない状況に置かれている。
結果にかかわらず起こりそうなのは、財政支出の大幅な増加である、
英国は17世紀のスチュアート王朝ではない — 議会は憲法上の最高の政治機関であり、その決定は永続的に無視されたり従わなかったりすることはできない。議会が再開すれば、おそらく10月14日頃、離脱期限を延長する手立てを講じることが可能だ。E.U.は離脱を遅らせるか取りやめることが自らの利益になるため、延長を認める可能性が高い。結果として総選挙が行われるだろう。
チャート 21
ボリス・ジョンソンの交渉戦略は失敗した
英国:循環的な減速か、それとも構造的な停滞か?
英国:循環的な減速か、それとも構造的な停滞か?
チャート 22
ハング・パーラメントが最もあり得る結果
ハング・パーラメントが最も可能性の高い結果だ
ハング・パーラメントが最も可能性の高い結果だ
選挙の世論調査は保守党の躍進、自由民主党が労働党を上回る状況、そしてブレグジット党が優勢を保つことを示している(チャート 22)。これらの世論を議席に翻訳するのは簡単ではない。小選挙区制(先頭打者勝利方式)では、小規模政党がもっとも人気のある党から重要な票を奪うことで、2位や3位だった党が議席を取る可能性があるからだ。
重要なのは、ブレグジット党は単一課題政党であり、ジョンソンの下の保守党は現在同じ課題を独占しているということだ。この状況が続けば、自由民主党は労働党の票を分裂させる脅威を保守党の票を分裂させるブレグジット党より大きく与える可能性がある。その結果、保守党が過半数を獲得することは依然として可能性として残るが、325議席以上が必要であり、問題児議員の追放やスコットランドでのリーダーシップ喪失により議席は288に減少しているため、可能性は低い。ハング・パーラメントがよりあり得る結果である。
ハング・パーラメントは優柔不断と不確実性を長引かせるだろう — しかしまた合意なき離脱に対しては結束して反対する可能性も高い。野党連合政権であれば合意なき離脱を阻止するだろう。単一党の保守党過半数であっても必ずしも悲惨な結果ではない。なぜならそれはジョンソンのE.U.に対する交渉力を高め、E.U.が離脱協定を通すための譲歩をする可能性を高め、結果として合意に基づく秩序ある離脱をもたらす可能性があるからだ(具体的には、バックストップの北アイルランドに関する制限、あるいは同様のサンセット条項や離脱メカニズム)。そのような合意はジョンソンにとって利益が大きく、彼が政権に復帰した瞬間から不況を引き起こすことを避けたいだろう。これらの結果はいずれも、離脱合意か、あるいは議会が新たな国民投票を模索する新章へと向かうことを示唆している。
チャート 23
財政支出の増加を予想せよ
財政支出の増加が見込まれる
財政支出の増加が見込まれる
市場にとって最悪の結果は、アイルランド問題で合意できず離脱協定を通せない弱い保守党の連立過半数であり、これはテリーザ・メイ時代と同様に麻痺につながる可能性がある。その場合、首相はあらゆる手段で離脱を実行しようとするため、再び合意なき離脱が現実的なリスクとなる。我々は主観的に合意なき離脱のリスクを約30%と見積もっているが、これは9月に議会がその結果に対して強い反対多数を示したことにより現在は低下しており、変化をもたらすのは総選挙だけである。
ブレグジットの結末が分からないまま英国の将来の政治情勢を予測することは無益である。結果にかかわらず起こりそうなのは財政支出の大幅な増加であり、これはグレート・リセッション後の「緊縮財政」からの反転を意味する。この傾向は既にジョンソンが今秋の保守党党大会で寛大な社会支出パッケージを提示しようとしていることから明らかである — もしそれが新たな選挙で支持されれば、保守党の財政政策の転換を意味する(チャート 23)。
より多くの財政支出は、無秩序な離脱の悪影響に対抗するため、あるいはE.U.離脱が英国の問題の万能薬ではないことが明らかになった場合に中産階級を宥めるため、あるいは政権交代時に野党が掲げる議題を実行するために必要となるだろう。
合意なき離脱が発生した場合、英国は混乱した経済的余波に直面するだけでなく、北アイルランドへの悪影響やスコットランド独立運動の再燃の可能性により三王国間の憲法的争いが再燃するだろうし、スコットランド独立の動きも再び活発化する可能性がある。
結論: 英国は独裁国ではなく、首相は議会の意思に従うことを拒むことはできない。議会は合意なき離脱を遅延させることを明確に投票しており、今後もそうするだろう。無秩序な離脱は、最終的に選挙で保守党が政権に返り咲く可能性があるため依然リスクとして残る。しかしその場合、E.U.は議会が離脱法案を可決できるよう譲歩を提供する可能性が高い。合意なき離脱の確率は30%を超えない。構造的な結論としては、結果にかかわらず財政支出は増加するだろう。
投資に関する結論
1992年のポンド暴落をめぐるエピソードは今日にとって重要な教訓を含んでいる。4 重要なのは、ポンドの調整の多くは急速に起きたが、今日と異なる点は欧州為替相場メカニズム(ERM)からの離脱は予期せぬ出来事だったのに対し、ブレグジットは予見されていたことである。外国為替市場は非常に流動的であり、期待に素早く反応する。ピークから谷まで、ケーブルは既に約30%下落しており、下落の大部分は既に起きていることを示唆している。
チャート 24
ギルトに対するブレグジットの二極的帰結
ギルツにとってのブレグジットの二者択一的結果
ギルツにとってのブレグジットの二者択一的結果
英通貨は変動相場制であり、固定相場制の時期に比べて「隠れた罪」は少ない。それでもポンドの公正価値は構造的に弱まっている。我々のバイアスは、ハードなブレグジットであればポンドは容易に1.10〜1.15ゾーンまで下落し得るというものだ。この動きの一部はアンダーシュート(行き過ぎ)となるだろう。ソフトなブレグジット(または離脱が起きない場合)には、ポンドは実質実効為替レートの歴史的範囲の中点に収束し、15%〜20%高となるか、概ね1.50付近に落ち着くだろう。リスク・リワードの観点から見ると魅力的に映る。
英ギルトの利回りの方向性もブレグジットの帰結に依存しており、英OISカーブ(オーバーナイト・インデックス・スワップ)には政策金利の変化が織り込まれていない(チャート 24)。
「円滑な」ブレグジットはBoEが高まった英国のインフレ期待と戦うことに再び焦点を戻すことを可能にするだろう。それは将来のBoE利上げを市場が織り込むことで、ギルト利回りの上昇とイールドカーブのフラット化、そして長期のインフレ期待の低下をもたらす可能性が高い。ポンド上昇もインフレ期待を抑えるだろう。このシナリオではギルトや英国のインフレ連動債は良いパフォーマンスを示さないだろう。
一方、合意なき離脱は、企業と消費者の信頼感への打撃を相殺するためにBoEが利下げを行うことを促すだろう。これはポンド安にもかかわらずインフレ期待が高止まりするかさらに上昇する場合でも起こり得る。そうなればギルト利回りは低下し、ギルトカーブはスティープ化するだろう。この結果に備える最善のポジションは、ギルトのオーバーウェイトとインフレ連動債のロングである。
前述した財政緩和のシナリオもギルトカーブの形状に影響し、ギルトカーブはより大きな財政赤字と将来の高インフレを織り込むことでややベア寄りのスティープ化を示すだろう、他条件が同じならば。
Robert Robis, CFA チーフ・フィクスト・インカム・ストラテジスト rrobis@bcaresearch.com
Chester Ntonifor, 外国為替ストラテジスト chestern@bcaresearch.com
Matt Gertken, 地政学ストラテジスト mattg@bcaresearch.com
Ray Park, CFA, リサーチ・アナリスト ray@bcaresearch.com
脚注
1 Andrew G Haldane, “Climbing the Jobs Ladder,” イングランド銀行(Bank of England), 2019年7月23日
2 Bank of England External MPC Unit Discussion Paper No. 51, “The Brexit vote, productivity growth and macroeconomic adjustments in the United Kingdom”, 2019年8月
3 ロンドンが主要な世界的金融センターとしての役割を果たしているため、英国の金融サービス産業はその産出のかなりの割合が非英国ユーザー向けに「トレード」されるという点で「貿易可能」部門である。
4 Mathias Zurlinden, “The Vulnerability of Pegged Exchange Rates: The British Pound in the ERM,” Economic Research, Vol. 75, No. 5 (September/October 1993).
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Dear Client, Owing to BCA’s 40th Annual Investment Conference in New York City next week, we will not be publishing a report on Friday, September 27. We will return to our regular publishing schedule on Friday, October 4, when we will be sending out our quarterly Strategy Outlook. Best regards, Peter Berezin, Chief Global Strategist Highlights The spike in oil prices underscores the vulnerability of key Saudi oil facilities. The fact that OPEC spare capacity is on the low side is an added source of concern. Fortunately, if oil prices do rise again, the impact on the global economy will be mitigated by the following: 1) the amount of oil necessary to produce one unit of real GDP is much lower than in the past; 2) oil prices are currently nowhere near restrictive levels; 3) higher oil prices will boost investment in the energy sector; and 4) unlike in the past, central banks will not need to hike rates to quell oil-induced inflationary pressures. The Federal Reserve is likely to cut rates once more in October and then keep rates on hold through 2020. The Fed will also begin expanding the size of its balance sheet to alleviate tensions in funding markets. Investors should remain overweight equities relative to bonds and start tilting exposure towards EM assets and cyclical stocks later this year. Feature All Aboard The Crude Oil Roller Coaster Chart 1A Price For The Books After gapping up by nearly 20% to $72/barrel on Monday morning – the biggest one-day spike in history – Brent oil prices have retreated to the $64-$65 range, representing a markup of around 7% over last Friday’s close (Chart 1). The near-term direction of oil prices will be governed by how quickly the Saudis are able to restore lost output. Brent fell by over $3/barrel on Tuesday following news reports quoting key Saudi sources saying that state-run Saudi Aramco would be able to bring production back to normal in the next two-to-three weeks. Bob Ryan, BCA’s chief commodity strategist, is skeptical of this reassurance. He notes that the drone attacks destroyed highly sophisticated “one-of-a-kind” equipment that had been specially built for the Abqaiq facility. Beyond the near-term impact, the longer-term question is whether Sunday’s pre-dawn strike is the start of a new violent trend. The fact that much of Saudi Arabia’s oil infrastructure is densely concentrated in the eastern part of the country makes it vulnerable to further attacks. The proliferation of drone technologies is also a source of concern since such devices can be used to wreak significant havoc at minimal cost. Chart 2Limited Availability Of Spare Capacity To Offset Outages Chart 3Key Strategic Petroleum Reserves Iran’s apparent involvement in the attack further complicates matters. As Matt Gertken, BCA’s chief geopolitical strategist, has argued, the drone strike may have been orchestrated by hardliners in Iran who regard President Rouhani’s efforts to restart negotiations with the United States as evidence of appeasement (some of these hardliners are also profiting from the sanctions by smuggling crude out of the country). President Trump’s decision to sack John Bolton over Bolton’s opposition to making any deal with the Iranians may have created a sense of urgency among the hardliners. In this respect, attacking Iran would probably give the hardliners what they want. All this has occurred at a time when OPEC spare capacity – the difference between what the cartel is capable of producing and what it is actually producing – is below its historic average (Chart 2). Crude oil reserves have also been trending lower within the OECD. Saudi Arabia’s own reserves have fallen by over 40% since peaking in 2015 (Chart 3). Oil And The Economy: How Big A Risk? While a major spike in oil prices is not our base case, it cannot be ruled out completely. If the price of crude were to increase significantly, how much damage would this do to the global economy? History is certainly not encouraging: Every single U.S. recession since 1970 has been preceded by a large jump in oil prices (Chart 4). Chart 4Oil Spikes And Recessions Chart 5The Global Economy Is Less Oil Intensive The fact that we are dealing with a potential supply disruption only makes things worse. It is one thing if oil prices are rising in response to stronger global growth; it is quite another if prices rise at a time, such as the present, when global growth is under pressure. Despite these concerns, there are four reasons to be optimistic that higher oil prices will not precipitate a major global economic downturn. First, the global economy is less reliant on oil than in the past. Chart 5 shows that the amount of oil necessary to produce one unit of real GDP has fallen by half since 1990. Second, oil prices are still quite low by historic standards. Even after this week’s jump, Brent is still 24% below where it was last October (Chart 6). In real terms, both Brent and WTI are more than 60% below their 2008 highs. Chart 6Oil Prices Are Well Off Their 2008 Peak Third, if oil prices do stay elevated, this will encourage investment in the oil patch, which will eventually bring prices back down. It is worth remembering that rising oil prices reduce aggregate demand in part by shifting wealth from oil consumers, who tend to spend most of their disposable income, to oil producers, who are often inclined to save the windfall from higher oil prices in such entities as sovereign wealth funds. However, if higher oil prices cause producers to expand production, the positive “investment effect” could offset much of the negative “consumption effect” on aggregate demand. Ironically, this means that a transfer of production from easily accessible oil deposits, such as those in Saudi Arabia, to less accessible shale or deep-sea deposits has the effect of increasing overall energy-sector capital spending, even if it does entail a loss of average efficiency. Fourth, higher oil prices today are unlikely to dislodge long-term inflation expectations. This represents a critical difference between the 1970s, 80s, and early 90s when central banks often felt the need to hike rates in the face of rising oil prices (Chart 7). These days, central banks are more likely to see oil price increases – especially those due to supply-side disruptions – as negative income shocks. Such shocks warrant looser, rather than tighter, monetary policy. Chart 7Core Inflation No Longer Driven By Oil Prices FOMC Cuts Rates As Expected This brings us to this week’s Fed meeting. As widely expected, the Fed cut rates by 25 basis points. It also lowered the projected policy rate path. Compared to the Summary of Economic Projections released in June – which suggested no rate change in 2019, one rate cut in 2020, and one rate hike in 2021 – the median dots in the September Summary of Economic Projections released this week show two cuts in 2019, no rate change in 2020, one rate hike in 2021, and one rate hike in 2022. Seven out of 17 participants penciled in a projected third cut for 2019. Judging from the tone of his post-meeting press conference, Jay Powell, dressed in his trademark bipartisan purple tie, was likely among those advocating for further easing. While it is far from a done deal, an additional rate cut in October appears more likely than not. In total, we expect 75 basis points in cuts, equivalent to the amount of easing orchestrated during both the 1995/96 and 1998 mid-cycle slowdowns (Chart 8). The Fed appears to be using these two episodes as a template for its current thinking. Chart 8Will The Fed Follow The 1990s Template Of 75 Bps Of Mid-Cycle Easing? The Fed is also likely to start expanding the size of its balance sheet starting in November. The spike in funding rates this week, while not at all related to the sort of counterparty risk that prevailed during the financial crisis, still underscored the fact that bank reserves are becoming increasingly scarce. To the extent that the Fed creates bank reserves when it purchases assets, this would help alleviate funding pressures. We are assuming that rate cuts beyond 75 basis points in total are possible. However, this would require a significant deceleration in U.S. growth, which looks unlikely. Real personal consumption spending is on track to increase by 3.1% in Q3, according to the Atlanta Fed’s GDPNow (Chart 9). While business capex spending continues to be weighed down by the manufacturing recession, rays of light are emerging. Industrial production rose by 0.6% in August, well above the consensus forecast of 0.2%. Despite an ongoing drag from the auto sector, manufacturing output rose by a solid 0.5%. Chart 9Inventories And Net Exports Have Subtracted From Growth Chart 10Easier Financial Conditions Will Boost Global Growth Globally, the growth picture remains shaky. Looking out, the sharp easing in financial conditions should boost activity (Chart 10). The nascent de-escalation in trade tensions, if sustained, should also help. As such, we continue to expect global growth to stabilize in the coming months and accelerate into year-end. Investment Conclusions Oil prices are likely to rise over the next 12 months. Geopolitical tensions could contribute to any upward pressure on the price of crude, but most of the increase in prices will probably be driven by stronger global growth. If global growth does pick up, the dollar will probably weaken (Chart 11). A weaker dollar will further boost oil prices, along with other commodity prices (Chart 12). Chart 11The Dollar Is A Countercyclical Currency Chart 12A Weaker Dollar Bodes Well For Commodities Stronger global growth, rising commodity prices, and a weaker dollar will hurt safe-haven government bonds but boost stocks. EM and cyclical equity sectors should gain disproportionately. Peter Berezin, Chief Global Strategist Global Investment Strategy peterb@bcaresearch.com Strategy & Market Trends MacroQuant Model And Current Subjective Scores Strategic Recommendations Closed Trades
Highlights Analyses on Indonesia and South Africa are available below. The slowdown in Chinese domestic demand has been the main culprit behind the global trade contraction - not the U.S.-China trade confrontation. China’s economy is not reliant on exports to the U.S. and there has been little damage to Chinese total exports. In contrast, Chinese imports have been contracting, dampening global trade. A recovery in the former is contingent on credit stimulus. Feature Chart I-1Chinese Imports Are Contracting Yet U.S. Ones Are Not With odds of a potential trade deal between the U.S. and China rising, the question now becomes whether an imminent acceleration in global trade will occur, sparking a rally in EM risk assets and currencies. We believe the trade confrontation between the U.S. and China has not been the main culprit behind the global trade contraction and manufacturing recession. The latter has primarily been due to a slowdown in Chinese domestic demand. Chart I-1 illustrates that Chinese imports for domestic consumption (excluding processing trade) are shrinking at 6% while U.S. total imports are still growing at 2% from a year ago. Consequently, an improvement in the global business cycle due to a potential trade agreement between the U.S. and China will be limited. Provided the global business cycle is the main factor driving EM risk assets and currencies, there is no sufficient reason to turn bullish on EM at the current juncture. Origin Of The Global Trade Slowdown Tariffs have mainly affected global growth indirectly (via dampening business confidence) rather than directly – by derailing Chinese exports to the U.S. or by affecting American consumer spending. First, U.S. household spending is still reasonably robust, and U.S. imports from the rest of the world have slowed but have not contracted (Chart I-2). Hence, the trade confrontation has not derailed U.S. household spending, and the latter’s impact on global trade has been mildly positive rather than negative. An improvement in the global business cycle due to a potential trade agreement between the U.S. and China will be limited. Second, Chinese exports have been more resilient than those of other Asian economies (Chart I-3). If the tariffs on Chinese exports to the U.S. were the main cause of the global trade slump, Chinese exports would be shrinking the most. Yet Chinese exports are not contracting – their growth rate is close to zero while Korean and Japanese exports have been plummeting (Chart I-3). Chart I-2U.S. Consumer Spending And Imports Have Not Been A Drag On Global Trade Chart I-3Exports In China Are Faring Better Than Those In Japan And Korea While China’s shipments to the U.S. have certainly plunged, there is both anecdotal and empirical evidence that mainland-produced goods have been making their way to the U.S. via Taiwan, Vietnam and other economies (Chart I-4). This is why Chinese aggregate exports are not contracting. Third, Chinese exports are doing better than imports (Chart I-5). This tells us that the underlying reason for the slowdown both in China and globally is not tariffs, but rather the weakness in Chinese domestic demand. Chart I-4China's Exports To U.S. Have Been Re-Routed Via Rest Of Asia Chart I-5Chinese Imports Are Worse Than Its Exports Importantly, ongoing contraction in Chinese imports excluding processing trade (i.e., excluding imports of inputs that are assembled and then re-exported) is a clear indication of a slump in Chinese domestic demand (please refer to Chart I-1 on page 1). Capital outlays in general and construction activity in particular remain very weak (Chart I-6). This is consistent with shrinking import volumes of capital goods, base metals, chemicals and lumber (Chart I-7). Chart I-6China: Capex Is In Doldrums Chart I-7China: Capex-Exposed Imports Are Shrinking Chart I-8China's Economy Is Not Reliant On Exports To The U.S. Finally, Chart I-8 shows that Chinese exports to the U.S. before the commencement of the trade war represented less than 4% of Chinese GDP. In contrast, capital spending in China is 42% of GDP. Hence, China’s economy is not reliant on exports to the U.S. This is why in our research and strategy we emphasize the mainland’s money/credit cycle – which leads capital spending – much more than its exports. To be clear, we are not implying that the U.S.-China trade confrontation has had no bearing on global growth. It has certainly affected business and consumer sentiment in China and hurt confidence among multinational companies. Hence, a trade deal could boost sentiment among these segments, leading to some improvement in their spending. Nevertheless, odds are that businesspeople in China and multinational CEOs around the world will realize that we are witnessing a secular rise in the U.S.-China confrontation, and that any trade deal will be temporary. The basis is that the genuine interests of the U.S. go against China’s national interests, since the U.S. has an interest in preventing the formation of a regional empire that can then challenge it for global supremacy. Conversely, whatever is in the long-term interests of China will not be acceptable for the U.S., particularly China’s rapid military and technological advancement. As such, global CEOs may see through a trade deal and any improvement in their confidence will likely be muted. In fact, if a China-U.S. trade détente leads Chinese authorities to resort to less stimulus going forward, odds are that China’s domestic demand revival will be delayed. Hence, the positive boost to global trade will not be substantial. The underlying reason for the slowdown both in China and globally is not tariffs, but rather the weakness in Chinese domestic demand. In such a case, global manufacturing and trade contraction will likely last longer than financial markets are presently pricing in. Asset prices will need to be reset in this scenario before a new cyclical rally begins. Bottom Line: The trade confrontation has not been the main reason behind the global trade slowdown. Consequently, its temporary resolution may not be enough to produce a cyclical recovery in global trade. Given financial markets have already bounced back in recent weeks, they may follow a “buy the rumor, sell the news” pattern regarding the trade deal. Investors should continue to underweight EM equities, sovereign credit and currencies within respective global portfolios. In absolute term, risks to EM assets and currencies are still tilted to the downside too. Arthur Budaghyan Chief Emerging Markets Strategist arthurb@bcaresearch.com Indonesia: Relapsing Growth Risks Foreign Outflows Indonesian stocks and the rupiah have been benefiting from falling U.S. interest rate expectations. This has been occurring even though domestic fundamentals, namely economic growth and the outlook for corporate profits, have been deteriorating. The Indonesian economy is undergoing a sharp slowdown: The private credit impulse is declining (Chart II-1, top panel). Retail sales volume of various goods are heading south (Chart II-1, middle panel). Mirroring the weakness in investment expenditures, capital goods imports are shrinking (Chart II-1, bottom panel). Passenger car sales are shrinking and sales of other types of vehicles have stalled. The real estate sector has entered a weak spot as well. House prices are only growing at 2% in nominal local currency terms according to data from the central bank. Growth in rail freight transport has stalled and the manufacturing PMI has dipped below the critical 50 level (Chart II-2, top and middle panels). Domestic cement consumption is contracting (Chart II-2, bottom panel). Chart II-1Indonesia: Domestic Demand Is Slumping Chart II-2Indonesia: Business Activity Is Anemic Finally, exports are dwindling at an annual rate of -8% from a year ago. Chart II-3Borrowing Costs Are Elevated Relative To Nominal Income Growth This growth deceleration is due to the ongoing contraction in exports, slowing domestic loan growth and somewhat conservative fiscal policy. These factors have altogether hit nominal incomes and hurt spending. Meanwhile, Indonesia’s lending rates remain elevated and well above nominal growth (Chart II-3). Such a gap between nominal income growth and borrowing costs is exerting deflationary pressures on the Indonesian economy. Consistent with worsening growth dynamics, non-financial stocks have been struggling and small cap stocks have been in a bear market since 2013 (Chart II-4). The basis is poor and deteriorating profitability among non-financial firms (Chart II-5). Chart II-5Indonesia: Poor Profitability Among Non-Financial Companies Chart II-4Non-Financial & Small Caps Stocks: Dismal Performance Only shares prices of three banks - Bank Central Asia, Bank Rakyat and Bank Mandiri - have been in a genuine bull market. These three stocks now account for 40% of the overall Indonesia MSCI Index and their rally has prevented an outright decline in the bourse. Chart II-6Indonesian Banks: Higher Provisions, Lower Profits We agree that these three banks are well provisioned and extremely well capitalized. Nevertheless, at a price-to-book value ratio of 4.7 for Bank Central Asia, 2.8 for Bank Rakyat and 1.8 Bank Mandiri, they are expensive. Given the ongoing economic slowdown and still high real borrowing costs, these three banks as well as all commercial banks in Indonesia will face higher NPLs and will be forced to provision for them. As NPL provisioning rise, banks’ profits will slow (Chart II-6). Such a scenario will likely lead to a 10-15% decline in these banks’ share prices in local currency terms. In U.S. dollars terms, the decline will be larger. Finally, as foreign investors in Indonesia begin digesting the magnitude of the country’s ongoing growth slump, their expectations for Indonesia’s return on capital will decline and they will likely reduce their exposure. This will trigger a selloff in the rupiah. Historically, foreign investors in Indonesia have cumulatively pumped $175 billion into debt securities and $105 billion into equity and investment funds. Indonesia’s lending rates remain elevated and well above nominal growth. Moreover, foreign ownership of local currency bonds and equities is high at 38% and 45%, respectively. Therefore, a decline in the rupiah will likely intensify the selloffs in the bond and equity markets. Bottom Line: For now, we continue recommending EM dedicated investors to remain underweight Indonesian equities, local currency bonds and U.S. dollar sovereign credit within their respective portfolios. We continue to recommend a short position in the IDR versus USD trade. Ayman Kawtharani, Editor/Strategist ayman@bcaresearch.com South Africa: On An Unsustainable Path The backdrop for South African financial assets remains poor, despite the recent surge in precious metals prices and Federal Reserve easing. The rand will continue to depreciate, even if precious metals prices continue to rise. Such a decoupling will not be historically unprecedented. Chart III-1 shows the long-term relationship between gold and the rand. The rand has failed to rally on several occasions during periods of rising gold prices. Chart III-1Rand Has Diverged Historically From Gold Prices What’s more, contrary to popular narrative, the rand and the majority of EM currencies do not typically appreciate when U.S. interest rate expectations drop. We have elaborated on this topic in depth in previous reports. Ultimately, widening twin deficits, dwindling growth and declining return on capital will continue to depress the rand and risk assets. Supply constraints are preventing South Africa from capitalizing on rising gold prices – gold mining output is plummeting (Chart III-2). In fact, the trade deficit has been widening, despite surging gold prices (Chart III-3). Chart III-2Contracting Mining Output Chart III-3Rising Gold Prices ≠ Improving Trade Balance The overall and primary fiscal deficits are also widening, as government revenues are slumping (Chart III-4). On top of this, the government recently announced a $4.2 billion (ZAR 59 billion) bailout for state-owned utility company Eskom, further worsening the country’s debt sustainability position. The combination of plummeting nominal GDP growth and still-high borrowing costs (Chart III-5) have also worsened debt dynamics among private borrowers, hurting private consumption and investment. Chart III-4Fiscal Deficit Will Widen Further Chart III-5Interest Rates Are Restrictive For Growth Both business and household demand remain lackluster. South African non-financial companies’ return on assets (RoA) has been declining and has dropped below EM for the first time in the past 20 years (Chart III-6). Falling RoA has been due not only to cyclical growth headwinds but also structural issues such as lack of productivity growth. The falling RoA explains South African financial assets’ underperformance versus their EM counterparts. Finally, the rand is not very cheap (Chart III-7). Given poor fundamentals, including but not limited to a lack of productivity growth and a low and falling return on capital, the currency may need to get much cheaper. Chart III-6Non-Financials: Return On Assets Chart III-7The Rand Needs To Get Cheaper! Overall, South Africa’s current macro dynamics are unsustainable. On the one hand, widening twin deficits will augment the country’s reliance on foreign funding. FDI inflows have been rather meager and are likely to stay that way. Hence, South Africa remains extremely dependent on volatile foreign portfolio inflows. Historically, foreign investors have cumulatively pumped $100 billion into debt securities and $120 billion into equity and investment funds. In turn, foreign portfolio inflows are contingent on a firm currency and high interest rates. Widening twin deficits, dwindling growth and declining return on capital will continue to depress the rand and risk assets. On the other hand, the economy is choking and public debt dynamics are worsening at a torrid pace due to high interest rates. Much lower domestic interest rates and a cheaper currency are necessary to reflate the economy and stabilize the public debt-to-GDP ratio. Ultimately, financial markets will likely push for a resolution of these contradictions. In the medium to long run, international capital flows gravitate towards countries that offer a high or rising return on capital. Provided return on capital in South Africa is very low and falling, foreign portfolio inflows will at some point diminish or grind to a halt. This will likely coincide with a negative global trigger for overall EM. Reduced inflows or mild outflows of foreign portfolio capital will cause sizable rand depreciation. Bottom Line: The economy requires a cheaper rand and much lower interest rates to grow. The rand will likely act as a release valve: it will depreciate a lot, improving the trade balance, which in turn will ultimately allow interest rates to decline - although local bond yields will spike initially on rand weakness. Investment recommendations: Remain short the rand versus the U.S. dollar, and underweight stocks and sovereign credit in respective dedicated EM portfolios. Concerning bonds, a depreciating rand will initially cause a selloff in local currency government bonds, warranting an underweight position for now. In the sovereign credit space, we are maintaining the following trade: sell CDS on Mexico / buy CDS on South Africa and Brazil. Andrija Vesic, Research Analyst andrijav@bcaresearch.com Footnotes Equities Recommendations Currencies, Credit And Fixed-Income Recommendations
If expanding payrolls and increasing compensation can keep consumption growing at 2%, the probability of a U.S. recession, of an equity bear market and a new default cycle, is fairly slim. The second quarter monthly employment situation reports have revealed…
Dear Client, BCA’s New York conference takes place next week on September 26-27, and I look forward to meeting some of you there. Because of the conference, our next report will come out on October 3. Dhaval Joshi Highlights If the WTI crude oil price breached $70, Germany’s net export growth would suffer a short-term relapse. If the WTI crude oil price breached $90, Germany’s economic growth would suffer a much longer setback. The WTI crude oil price is now trading at $59, well below even the first pain threshold. Hence, at the moment, the oil price ‘spike’ is a minor irritant rather than a major risk to a German (and European) economic rebound in the fourth quarter. Stay overweight the Eurostoxx50 versus the Shanghai Composite and Nikkei225. If the WTI price stabilises well below $70, we intend to initiate an overweight to the DAX versus global equities. German bunds are a structural short relative to U.S. T-bonds. Feature Chart of the WeekOil Price Oscillations Have Explained German Growth Oscillations With A Spooky Precision It is touch and go whether Germany suffered a technical recession through the second and third quarters.1 We will know in about six weeks’ time, once the statisticians have finished crunching the numbers. But for the financial markets, this is old news. A technical recession in Germany during the second and third quarters is already baked in the market cake. The economy and financial markets are entwined in a perpetual dance. In a dance, sometimes one person decides the steps and sometimes the other person does, but the couple always moves together. And so it is with the economy and markets. The ZEW indicator of (German) economic sentiment recently hit its lowest level since 2011, and the performance of the DAX versus global equities has moved in near perfect lockstep (Chart I-2). Chart I-2A German Recession Is Already Baked In The Market Cake Some people try to predict the movement of markets based on the releases of backward-looking economic data or even supposedly real-time economic data, such as sentiment surveys. Good luck with that. The markets instantaneously discount those releases. To predict the markets, the key question is: what will the future releases look like? If the German economy rebounds in the fourth quarter, then the stark underperformance of the DAX constitutes a compelling buying opportunity versus other equity markets. That said, a new potential risk has emerged: the spike in the crude oil price. Germany Is Highly Sensitive To The Oil Price Europeans are large importers of energy, with 55 percent of all energy needs met by net imports. Moreover, the volume of energy they import tends to be price inelastic. Hence, when energy prices plunge, it boosts net exports and thereby it boosts growth. Conversely, when energy prices soar – as they have recently – it depresses net exports and thereby it depresses growth.2 98 percent of Germany’s consumption of oil depends on imports. This is especially true for Germany whose energy import dependency, at 65 percent, is well above the European average. The most important energy source is still oil which accounts for over a third of Germany’s primary energy use (Chart I-3). Moreover, 98 percent of Germany’s consumption of oil depends on imports.3 Chart I-3Germany Is Highly Sensitive To The Oil Price Most of Germany’s oil consumption is for transport. On a timeframe of decades, the planned decarbonisation of all sectors by 2050 should all but eliminate fossil oil from German energy consumption. However, on a timeframe of quarters, oil consumption for transport is highly inelastic and non-substitutable. Hence, in recent years, swings in the oil price have always caused swings in Germany’s net exports (Chart I-4). Based on this excellent relationship, a likely rebound in German net exports in the fourth quarter would be threatened if the WTI crude price reached and stayed in the mid $70s. Chart I-4Swings In The Oil Price Cause Swings In Germany's Net Exports For Economic Growth, The Oil Price Impulse Is What Matters Empirically, we have found that the German economy is much more sensitive to the oil price than other European economies (Chart I-5 and Chart I-6). This could be because other drivers of the economy such as credit developments are less significant in Germany. Chart I-5Germany Is More Sensitive To The Oil Price... Chart I-6...Than Other European ##br##Economies Most analysts argue that it is the change in the oil price that is relevant for the economy. This is obviously correct for the impact on inflation, which is, by definition, the change in a price. However, it is incorrect to argue that the change in the oil price drives economic growth. Instead, it is the impulse of the oil price – the change in its change – that drives economic growth. To understand why, consider a simplified example. Let’s say a 20 percent drop in the oil price added to Germany’s net exports, causing the economy to grow 1 percent. In the following period, another 20 percent drop in the oil would cause the economy to grow again by 1 percent, so growth would stay unchanged. On the other hand, if the oil price dropped by 10 percent, the economy would still grow, but now at a reduced rate of 0.5 percent. Therefore somewhat paradoxically, though the oil price has declined by 10 percent, growth has slowed. This is because the second drop in the price (10 percent) is less than the first (20 percent) – which means the tailwind impulse has faded. Now let’s put in the actual numbers for the oil price’s 6-month impulse. The period ending around June 2019 constituted a severe headwind impulse. This is because a 30 percent increase in the oil price followed a 40 percent decline in the previous period, equating to a headwind impulse of 70 percent.4 Allowing for typical lags of a few months, this severe headwind impulse is a likely culprit, or at least a contributing culprit, for Germany’s slowdown during the second and third quarters. As the Chart of the Week compellingly illustrates, oscillations in the oil price’s 6-month impulse have explained the oscillations in Germany’s 6-month economic growth with a spooky precision. Empirically, other explanatory factors are not needed. The period ending June 2019 constituted a severe headwind impulse from the oil price. Now the good news. Until the last few days, the oil price’s severe headwind impulse had eased – and this fading of the headwind strongly suggested a rebound in German economic growth during the fourth quarter and beyond. This raises a crucial question: to what level would the crude oil price have to spike for the maximum headwind impulse to return, and thereby extinguish the chance of such a rebound? By reverse engineering the price from the maximum headwind impulse, the answer is the WTI crude price at $90. Pulling all of this together, the first pain threshold is WTI breaching $70, at which Germany’s net export growth could suffer a short-term relapse. The second and greater pain threshold is WTI breaching $90, at which Germany’s economic growth could be stifled for much longer. Having said all that, WTI is now trading at $59, well below even the first pain threshold. Hence, at the moment, this is a minor irritant rather than a major risk to a German (and European) economic rebound. Stay overweight the Eurostoxx50 versus the Shanghai Composite and Nikkei225. And in the coming week or so, if the WTI price stabilises well below $70, we intend to initiate an overweight to the DAX versus global equities. The ECB Fired A Dud So much for the ECB’s promise to ‘shock and awe’ the markets. The bazooka ended up firing a dud! Unlimited QE is not really unlimited when the ECB’s asset purchase program is running close to its individual issuer limit, and its country composition cannot deviate too far from the ECB’s capital key. QE is nothing more than a signal of intent to keep policy interest rates ultra-low for a protracted period. In any case, QE is nothing more than a signal of intent to keep policy interest rates ultra-low for a protracted period. But once the markets have fully discounted this intent – as they have in the euro area and Japan – the monetary policy armoury is effectively out of ammunition (Chart I-7-Chart I-10). So it is not surprising that the ECB fired a dud. Chart I-7Monetary Policy Is Exhausted In The Euro Area... Chart I-8...But The U.S. Still Has ##br##Ammunition Chart I-9Monetary Policy Is Exhausted In Japan... Chart I-10...But China Still Has Ammunition Some people counter that there are even more exotic monetary policy options in the pipeline, such as ‘helicopter money’. However, as Mario Draghi correctly pointed out, “giving money to people in whatever form is not a monetary policy task, it’s a fiscal policy task.” Helicopter money might be a step too far, but its notion encapsulates the shape of things to come in Europe. With euro area monetary policy exhausted, the baton is passing to fiscal policy. The upshot is that in a bond portfolio, German bunds are a structural short relative to U.S. T-bonds. Fractal Trading System* Although we are structurally overweight Italian long-dated BTPs, the 130-day fractal dimension is signalling that the pace of the rally is now technically extended and therefore vulnerable to a countertrend correction. This week’s trade recommendation is to express this via a short position in the Italian 10-year BTP, setting a profit target of 3 percent with a symmetrical stop-loss. In other trades, short the U.S. 10-year T-bond quickly achieved its profit target, while short financial services versus market reached the end of its holding period in slight loss. For any investment, excessive trend following and groupthink can reach a natural point of instability, at which point the established trend is highly likely to break down with or without an external catalyst. An early warning sign is the investment’s fractal dimension approaching its natural lower bound. Encouragingly, this trigger has consistently identified countertrend moves of various magnitudes across all asset classes. Chart I-11 The post-June 9, 2016 fractal trading model rules are: When the fractal dimension approaches the lower limit after an investment has been in an established trend it is a potential trigger for a liquidity-triggered trend reversal. Therefore, open a countertrend position. The profit target is a one-third reversal of the preceding 13-week move. Apply a symmetrical stop-loss. Close the position at the profit target or stop-loss. Otherwise close the position after 13 weeks. Use the position size multiple to control risk. The position size will be smaller for more risky positions. * For more details please see the European Investment Strategy Special Report “Fractals, Liquidity & A Trading Model,” dated December 11, 2014, available at eis.bcaresearch.com. Dhaval Joshi, Chief European Investment Strategist dhaval@bcaresearch.com Footnotes 1 We define a technical recession as two consecutive quarters of contraction in real GDP. 2 Energy dependence = (imports – exports) / gross available energy. 3 According to the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources. 4 The 6-month steps in the WTI crude oil price were $74.15, $45.21, and $58.24. The first change equated to a 40 percent decrease and the second change equated to a 30 percent increase. So the 6-month impulse was 70 percent. Fractal Trading System Cyclical Recommendations Structural Recommendations Closed Fractal Trades Trades Closed Trades Asset Performance Currency & Bond Equity Sector Country Equity Indicators Bond Yields Chart II-1Indicators To Watch - Bond Yields Chart II-2Indicators To Watch - Bond Yields Chart II-3Indicators To Watch - Bond Yields Chart II-4Indicators To Watch - Bond Yields Interest Rate Chart II-5Indicators To Watch - Interest Rate Expectations Chart II-6Indicators To Watch - Interest Rate Expectations Chart II-7Indicators To Watch - Interest Rate Expectations Chart II-8Indicators To Watch - Interest Rate Expectations
Dear Client, Owing to BCA’s 40th Annual Investment Conference at the Grand Hyatt in New York City next week, there will be no report on Wednesday, September 25. We will return to our regular publication schedule on Wednesday, October 2. I look forward to meeting China Investment Strategy clients in person at our conference. Please do not hesitate to say hello. Best regards, Jing Sima China Strategist Highlights China’s economy should bottom as a result of the pickup in credit that occurred earlier this year, but the circumstances surrounding the ongoing slowdown are unprecedented in nature. This raises the risk that policymakers will have to do more in order to stabilize growth. Optimism surrounding recent Chinese policy announcements is misguided. For now, Chinese policymakers are not upping the pace of stimulus, which underscores the risk to our forecast that growth will soon stabilize. A more meaningful shot of reflation will occur in the coming few months if the economy slows further, but policymakers will be reactive rather than proactive. Barring a successful (even if temporary) trade deal, we expect more weakness in the RMB as a passive source of reflation to aid the economy. But currency devaluation is a double-edged sword, and cannot be counted on to single-handedly stabilize China’s economy. Over a 6-12 month time horizon, investors should continue to overweight Chinese stocks versus the global benchmark in currency hedged terms, but the risk of further underperformance over the near-term is high. Feature Chinese economic growth continues to weaken. The Caixin manufacturing PMI for August, along with the New Export Orders component of the manufacturing PMI released by China’s National Bureau of Statistics, registered small gains in August from July. However, any hopes pinned on this being an emerging sign of turnaround in the Chinese economy soon faded. A slew of August data showed continued sluggishness in exports, an even worse domestic-demand picture, and further deflation in ex-factory producer prices. Most importantly, we continue to witness “half-measured” stimulus. In explaining past and existing economic weakness, many investors point to the trade war with the U.S. However, Charts 1 and 2 serve as an important reminder that domestic weakness predates U.S. protectionism. The trade war tensions and tariffs are magnifying this weakness, but China’s slowdown is, at its core, policy driven. Chart 1Weakness In Chinese Economy Predates The Trade War... Chart 2…And Has Been A Byproduct Of Financial De-Risking Campaign Given this, investors should be more focused on identifying signs of a major reversal in policy. So far Chinese policymakers have been firmly holding their line in keeping credit growth somewhat in check. Policy-Induced Economic Stabilization: A Tough Forecast To Make Our baseline view is that the current scale of stimulus should be sufficient to stop economic growth from decelerating further. Two factors support our baseline view: The direct impact from tariffs on the Chinese economy is limited. Growth in China’s exports to the U.S. in 2019 is likely to be somewhere close to a 9% contraction, down from the 10.8% increase registered in 2018. Based on a simple calculation with all else being equal, this is likely to shave 1.6 percentage points off China’s total export growth and 0.3 percentage points off nominal GDP growth in 2019. This is not trivial, but arguably not devastating to China’s aggregate economy either. There is anecdotal evidence suggesting some Chinese exports have been re-routed to peripheral countries such as Vietnam and Taiwan in order to avoid the U.S. import tariffs on Chinese goods (Chart 3). This suggests that real growth in Chinese exports to the U.S. could be stronger than the current data suggests. Chart 3Exports Finding Alternative Routes? Chart 4Bottoming in the economy In Sight? Credit growth has picked up since the beginning of this year. Based on the historical relationship between China’s credit impulse (measured by the 12-month change in BCA’s adjusted total social financing as a percentage of nominal GDP) and domestic demand, the economy should bottom out at some point before the end of the year (Chart 4). Although, import growth, a key measure of China’s domestic demand, remains in deep contraction, some of its components that usually lead industrial activities are showing signs of improvement (Chart 5). Chart 5Early Signs of Improved Domestic Demand Chart 6Manufacturing Investment Growth In Contraction However, our level of confidence that the existing stimulus will be sufficient to stabilize economic growth is lower than it otherwise would be. This is due to the fact that the challenges facing the Chinese economy are unprecedented in nature. For one, the indirect impact of the trade war on China’s economy through business sentiment and manufacturing investment has yet to be fully revealed in the data. As Chart 6 shows, manufacturing investment is already deteriorating, particularly in export-intensive sectors. The ultimate impact on investment from the trade war is still uncertain, and can pose significant downside risks to the Chinese economy in the coming year. More importantly, as Chart 7 suggests, a weak credit impulse will at best lead to a very subdued economic recovery even if growth does indeed bottom. In terms of the link between policy and the economy, Chart 8 points out a key difference between the current slowdown and previous down cycles: Monetary conditions have been ultra-loose for more than a year, but current economic conditions remain on a downward trend – much more so than in the previous cycles. This huge gap and lag in economic response to monetary stance can only be explained by an impaired policy transmission mechanism. An expansionary monetary stance has not proportionally translated into credit expansion or economic recovery. This challenges the effectiveness and timeliness of future monetary loosening in terms of its ability to revive the Chinese economy. Chart 7Current Pace Of Credit Growth Will Lead To A Fragile Recovery, At Best Chart 8An Impaired Monetary Policy Transmission The scale and timing of the current stimulus measures have been “behind the curve.” Therefore, the historical relationship between China’s credit impulse and the turning points in the economy may not apply to the current cycle. Bottom Line: China’s economy should bottom as a result of the pickup in credit that occurred earlier this year, but the circumstances surrounding the ongoing slowdown are unprecedented in nature. This raises the risk that policymakers will have to do more in order to stabilize growth. An Unusually Prudent Policy Bias For some, the recent slew of announcements on upcoming stimulus qualified as a major shift in policy bias. Our analysis suggests otherwise. The bank reserve requirement ratio (RRR) cuts announced late in August have been among the most cited policy announcements, with the PBoC stating that the new cuts will release RMB 900 billion of fresh liquidity.1 In our view, this measure is more about maintaining liquidity in China’s large commercial banks than adding to it (on a net basis). Chart 9RRR Cuts May Not Be That Stimulative Chart 9 shows that, in previous episodes of meaningful RMB depreciation against the U.S. dollar, in order to prevent the RMB from falling at an undesirable pace, PBoC has had to intervene in the spot market by selling U.S. dollars. The selling of U.S. dollars in this round of RMB depreciation has been much more muted than in 2015-2016, but we suspect some intervention has taken place following each bout of escalation in the trade war. This has had a liquidity tightening effect on banks, as selling central bank foreign-exchange reserves reduces liquidity in the banking system. It is very likely that following the PBoC’s defense of the RMB in the last two months, the RRR cuts were a measure aimed at preventing a liquidity crunch ahead of the September tax season. If true, this hardly qualifies as net new stimulus for the economy. There were also two important announcements that came out of the September 5th State Council meeting: The entire 2019 quota for local government special project bonds must be issued by the end of September, and all money raised from the bonds must be disbursed to projects by the end of October. This too is not exactly “stimulative,” as over 90% of the 2019 local government special-project bond quota has already been issued. This leaves less than 10% of the quota outstanding, an 80% decline from what was issued last September. On a quarterly basis, special-bond issuance in the third quarter of 2019 will end up being 30% lower than the same period last year. It was also announced that, in order to meet the local needs for construction of key projects, part of 2020’s special bonds quota will be allocated in advance to ensure that the funds are available for use at the beginning of next year.2 While the announcement did not indicate how much in the way of special-purpose bonds local governments are allowed to frontload through the remainder of this year, we maintain our view that this is not a policy shift towards materially larger stimulus than we have seen so far this year: Without an additional quota, local government special-purpose bond issuance would essentially fall to zero in the fourth quarter as the 2019 target would be hit by the end of September. Thus, the frontloading of next year’s bond issuance will only “fill the gap” between now and year-end. As special-purpose bond issuance only accounts for 15% of total funding for local governments’ infrastructure spending, the new measure alone is unlikely to meaningfully accelerate investment growth.3 We have noted in previous reports that in order for local governments to accelerate spending within the current fiscal budget framework, one of three things must occur: more direct funding from the central government, an acceptance by policymakers of more shadow bank lending, or a larger quota for bond issuance. So far we have not seen any of the above-mentioned shifts in policy. Chart 10Local Governments Tightening Belt This Year The only positive sign for local government spending has been a pickup in land sales in Q2, which makes up more than 70% of local government revenues. But, it is far from making up the shortfalls in local governments’ budgets (Chart 10). Local governments are facing considerable fiscal pressure as annual tax revenue growth has fallen to near zero. Critically, the government’s regulatory stance on local government budgets has continued to tighten: Local governments have been ordered by the Ministry of Finance to liquidate state-owned assets to fund their budget deficits this year.4 This austerity measure is also being met with explicit reiteration from the Ministry of Finance on the central government not bailing out local governments, and that local government officials are held responsible for their own borrowing and spending.5 Bottom Line: Optimism surrounding recent Chinese policy announcements is misguided. For now, Chinese policymakers are not upping the pace of stimulus, which underscores the risk to our forecast that growth will soon stabilize. A more meaningful shot of reflation will occur in early 2020 if the economy slows further in Q4, but policymakers will most likely continue their reactive approach rather than proactive. RMB Depreciation: A Plus Or Peril? The RMB’s renewed depreciation since August initially raised fears among global investors that an uncontrolled decline might occur, but these fears have subsided over the past several weeks. Even though the USD-CNY exchange rate has broken the psychological 7 threshold, it is not forming a linear downward trend. Unlike after the August 2015 devaluation, it appears that the PBoC can successfully enact countercyclical measures to guide the RMB’s value higher following each large depreciation (Chart 11). Chart 11PBoC Not Panicking Over RMB Depreciation Fears of uncontrolled capital outflows following the depreciation are also abating. We presented a dashboard for monitoring short-term capital outflows from China in our March 20 Special Report,6 and an update of these indicators suggests that China’s heightened capital controls are holding – i.e., outflows have not escalated as they did in 2015 (Chart 12). Chart 12No Major Capital Outflow Chart 13RMB Depreciation Partially Offsets Tariffs Thus, the conclusion is that Chinese policymakers appear to be in control of the currency. The reduced risk of an uncontrolled decline has allowed policymakers to (passively) provide meaningful stimulus to the domestic economy via depreciation. Indeed, the RMB has not only depreciated against the USD, but also against many Asian currencies including direct trade competitors such as Vietnam and Taiwan (Chart 13). This is helping offset the negative impact of U.S. tariffs on Chinese exporters. But currency devaluation can come with a price tag – in particular for corporations that have borrowed heavily in U.S. dollar-denominated debt. We estimate that $440 billion of U.S. dollar debt will be maturing over the coming two years, for Chinese companies and banks in the aggregate.7 A 12% depreciation in the RMB since April 2018 means that debt servicing costs will be 12% higher for unhedged debtors. This is particularly painful for real estate and financial services companies, two of the largest holders of U.S. dollar-denominated loans, and the weakest sectors in the current economic downturn. Most importantly, while currency devaluation ease the slowdown, it cannot be counted on to stabilize Chinese economic activity on its own. For example, while our earnings recession model suggests that the decline in the RMB since May has reduced the odds of a major decline in economic activity by roughly 20%, the model also shows that such an event is still highly probable (current odds are roughly at 70%). Bottom Line: Barring a successful (even if temporary) trade deal, we expect more weakness in the RMB as a passive source of reflation to aid the economy. But currency devaluation is a double-edged sword, and cannot be counted on to single-handedly stabilize China’s economy if a further slowdown occurs. An Update On Corporate Earnings Against a backdrop of what may turn out to be insufficient policy support, the earnings picture is providing one modest positive for equity investors. While the growth rate in investable earnings per share has slowed significantly over the past year (Chart 14), it has merely fallen to zero and not deeply into negative territory, as what seemingly occurred in 2015-2016. In our view, the risk of a similar collapse in earnings per share (EPS) has been an important factor weighing on Chinese investable equities’ relative performance since June 2018. In reality, a closer examination of MSCI China Index earnings reveals that a huge decline in EPS this year was never really a threat, because the apparent collapse in 2015-2016 did not actually transpire. Changes to the composition in the MSCI China Index that took effect in November 2015 and June 2016 had the effect of depressing index EPS, due to the sizeable inclusion of a set of richly valued stocks. Chart 15 presents BCA’s calculation of “break-adjusted” EPS for Chinese investable stocks, which shows that EPS growth bottomed out at -10% in late-2016, as opposed to the -28% implied by the unadjusted series. Chart 14Investable EPS Has Yet To Contract Meaningfully Chart 15The Potential Downside For Earnings Is Less Than Many Fear Chart 16A Cyclical Recovery In Earnings Has Not Yet Begun The existence of less downside potential for earnings is certainly positive for investable stocks at the margin, but it does not alter the outlook for equity fundamentals over the coming year. We have shown in several previous reports that there is a strong and reliable link between investable EPS growth and China’s coincident economic activity,8 and the continued slowing in the latter does not suggest that a bottom in earnings is imminent. In addition, Chart 16 highlights that while net earnings revisions have recovered from their early-year lows, they remain in negative territory and have stopped rising over the past few weeks. Twelve-month forward EPS momentum, also presented on a break-adjusted basis, is modestly negative, and has recently weakened (panel 2). Bottom Line: The downside risk to earnings for Chinese investable equities is less than many investors fear. But absent stronger credit growth, it remains too early to confidently project a cyclical earnings recovery. Investment Conclusions The historical relationship between credit growth and economic activity suggests that the latter should soon stabilize, which is our base case view for the coming few months. Still, the risk of a further, meaningful deceleration in growth is elevated, given the unprecedented circumstances surrounding the ongoing slowdown. For equity investors, less potential downside risks to earnings than previously feared is a positive at the margin, but the fundamental outlook still hinges on a durable pickup in economic activity. Over a 6-12 month time horizon, this implies that one of two scenarios will unfold: The economy will stabilize in response to the easing that has already occurred (i.e. our base case view). The economy slows further in the near-term, prompting a more significant policy response that leads to an even sharper pickup in activity. Chart 17Investable Stocks: An Overshoot To The Downside? In the first scenario, investable stocks have probably overshot to the downside versus the global benchmark and thus will very likely outperform from current levels. Near-term performance is likely to be flat-to-down, as investors await hard evidence of a sequential improvement in growth (Chart 17). In the second scenario, investable stocks are at potentially acute near-term risk, but will likely eventually outperform global stocks once activity begins to pick up sharply. In this scenario, the outperformance of Chinese equities will commence later, but would likely still occur by the tail end of our cyclical investment horizon (6-12 months). As a final point, we are not ruling out the possibility of a temporary trade deal between the U.S. and China, as both sides have the incentive to avoid a further escalation and are now showing goodwill towards constructive negotiations. This may change our tactical view on Chinese stocks, but our cyclical view remains focused on China’s domestic policy and economic fundamentals. Jing Sima China Strategist JingS@bcaresearch.com Footnotes 1 PBC Official: The RRR Cut Aims at Bolstering Real Economy, September 6, 2019 2 China to accelerate the issuance and use of special local government bonds to catalyze effective investment, China State Council, September 4, 2019 3 Please see Emerging Markets Strategy Special Report, “Chinese Infrastructure Investment: A Ramp-Up Ahead?”, dated August 1, 2019, available at ems.bcaresearch.com 4 China’s Local Governments Sell Assets to Make Up for Revenue Loss, Caixin, September 3, 2019 5 http://www.mof.gov.cn/zhengwuxinxi/caizhengxinwen/201909/t20190906_3382239.htm?mc_cid=eb2b199651&mc_eid=9da16a4859 6 Please see China Investment Strategy Special Report, “Monitoring Chinese Capital Outflows”, dated March 20, 2019, available at cis.bcaresearch.com 7 Please see Emerging Markets Strategy Special Report, “China’s Foreign Debt, And A Secret Weapon”, dated September 12, 2019, available at ems.bcaresearch.com 8 Please see China Investment Strategy Weekly Report, “Threading A Stimulus Needle (Part 2):Will Proactive Fiscal Policy Lose Steam?”, dated July 24, 2019, available at cis.bcaresearch.com Cyclical Investment Stance Equity Sector Recommendations
Following up from last week’s ISM-related analysis, we turn our attention to the labor market that is beginning to reveal some minor cracks. While the ISM debate has centered around the steep divergences between services and manufacturing on the headline number and the new orders subcomponents, the labor components have gone nearly unnoticed. Worrisomely on the employment front, the surveys are in agreement (bottom panel), warning that the labor market will have trouble standing on its own two feet. Tack on the latest NFIB survey, and the news gets grimmer. The top panel shows that an equally-weighted index of small business job openings and hiring plans is quickly losing momentum. Given that roughly 2/3 of job creation originates in small and medium businesses, non-farm payroll growth will likely continue to lose steam in the coming months, which is a bearish sign for the broad equity market (second & third panels). Bottom Line: Remain cautious on the prospects of the overall equity market. Please see the most recent Weekly Report for more details.
The authorities (state banks or the central bank) could hypothetically support the yuan by selling unlimited amounts of dollars in the forward market. Unlike the sale of U.S. dollars from the People’s Bank of China’s FX reserves, this would entail neither a…

